motivation

This week's topics:

• motivation
• motivational theories- classic approaches
• modern approaches to work motivation
• practical issues in motivation
• Gig
• adhesives company sales rep
• article
• academy of management executive (on the folly of rewarding A, while hoping for B and more on folly)

motivation- concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior

need- internal motivation thought to be inborn and universally present in humans (Maslow)

person as machine- metaphor suggesting that people's behaviors and actions are reflexive and involuntary and are performed without conscious awareness

person as godlike- metaphor suggesting that people are perfectly rational and intentional rather than automatic/reflexive

performance = (motivation x ability) - situational constraints

Reaction

Without certain pieces of the equation above, we will never achieve performance. There are many factors that go into each piece of the equation above. This week we focused on the motivation piece. These are the main theories that tie into motivation: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, two-factor theory, ERG theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and VIE theory. Each account for different things people experience in order to have needs met in order to be motivated to achieve something.

Analysis

In one of my more recent jobs, my motivation was to do the best job I could and to run down the clock. I wanted to get things done well and fill my entire shift because if there were not enough things to be done, people would get sent home early. When I gave my boss a quality performance, he was more likely to reward me with not being sent home early even if there were few things to be completed. These could be considered incentives.

incentives- situational factors that direct behavior to achieve goals that satisfy needs

My boss needed specific tasks performed, he wanted them done well. The incentive to meet what my boss needed accomplished was the possibility of not being sent home early. If you did things well, my boss knew you would be capable of staying later and working alone. The reward was getting those precious extra hours.

Reflection
A lot of things play into this concept- motivation. Factors on both the employer and employee's side need to be considered when setting up the rewards system for an organization. Like the other topics we cover, there are many things that need to be considered and could go wrong. The article we read discussed the various follies experienced in different situations. With careful planning, organizations can have meaningful rewards systems for their members. Occasional evaluation of this system should be performed in order to maintain a quality system that is appreciated.

diversity

"Culture is more often a source of conflict than a synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster." Geert Hofstede, Emeritus Professor, Masstricht University

This week's topics:

• multicultural and cross-cultural issues in I/O psychology
• diversity
• models
• assimilation
• protection
• value
• Hofstede's five dimensions
• individualist vs. collectivist cultures
• power distance
• uncertainty avoidance
• masculinity vs. femininity
• long-term vs. short-term orientation
• merging organizations
• ethnocentrism
• polycentrism
• regiocentrism
• geocentrism
• Gig
• tofu manufacturer
• merchandise handler
• article
• affirmative action: psychological contributions to policy

diversity- differences in demographic characteristics; also includes differences in values, abilities, interests, and experiences

• can be predicated on attributes that are easy to detect (surface-level), or on attributes that are less detectable (underlying)
• can be distinguished on the basis of attributes that are related to tasks compared with those that are more relationship oriented

multinational- diversity of nationalities

multicultural organizations- characterized by full structural and formal integration, minimal prejudice or discrimination, minimal subgroup differences in organizational attachment, and low levels of conflict; one culture reflecting the mixture of diversity in an organization rather than several mini cultures reflecting the different elements in the mixture

REACTION
Diversity is a touchy subject that organizations must handle carefully. There are too many things that can be distorted and taken out of context. Even the best intentions may not turn out to be politically correct. There is a lot for organizations to consider both ethically and legally.

ANALYSIS
In one job, I have had to handle incoming applications for various positions. We consider everyone who applies. It always comes down to what skills each person brings to the table. There are so many applications turned in that do not meet the specified requirements and we have no choice but to hire someone else. Another consideration is how well they can communicate with people since most of these jobs are customer-service oriented. Diversity issues are never a factor when making these types of decisions. These go back to the concept of affirmative action.

affirmative action- program that acknowledges that particular demographic groups may be underrepresented in the work environment; provides specific mechanisms for reducing this underrepresentation

• promise equal opportunities (not outcomes)
• specialized recruiting programs intended to reach underrepresented groups in the workforce
• specialized pre- or posthire training to develop job-related KSAOs
• mentoring programs for underrepresented groups 
• planned developmental opportunities such as assignment to particular teams and departments
• specialized performance feedback programs

We have to afford equal opportunities to everyone by allowing them to apply and be considered. That does not mean every minority person who applies is guaranteed a job.

REFLECTION
These are hot-button topics. People get very heated when they debate these issues. Some feel that in the end majorities are being discriminated against. It's a difficult subject for I/O psychologists to handle. Careful steps need to be taken in order to maintain justice and fairness within organizations.

Compensation

This week's topics:

• job evaluation
• comparable worth
• the law
• article
• beyond money: toward an economy of well-being

job evaluation- method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another and determining their relative merit by way of these comparisons

compensable factors- factors in a job evaluation system that are given points that are later linked to compensation for various jobs within the organization; factors usually include skills, responsibility, effort, and working conditions

equal pay act of 1963- prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in the payment of wages or benefits, where men and women perform work of similar skill, effort, and responsibility for the same employer under similar work conditions

Reaction

It is important to I/O psychologists to understand the thought process behind compensable factors and comparable worth. Both are things that need to be weighed while employers are determining compensation of employees.

Analysis

I have come into contact with many people who are well below the highest pay scale (especially at the University). There are some people who are "higher up" on the pay scale and literally do LESS, understand LESS, and have been observed as playing computer games for a majority of work time. These are the people I feel should receive lower compensation ESPECIALLY in comparison to lower pay scale employees who perform way more work to support their departments. For these people, there should be a serious look into reevaluating the job position so they can receive comparable pay. 

comparable worth- notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to the organization should receive comparable pay

I feel that periodically larger organizations should commit time to reevaluating job positions of those who are paid significantly more in order to reduce the number of lower pay scale jobs.

Reflection
This week's topics were very interesting to me. I'm glad we were able to cover them and do an in-depth class discussion today- it helped us to understand and apply the terminology and article information.

Performance Measuring

Topics

• basic concepts in performance
• performance rating- substance
• performance rating- process
• social and legal context of performance evaluation
• Gig
• UPS Driver
• Articles
• The politics of employee appraisal
• Rating formats and rater training redux: A context-specific approach for enhancing the effectiveness of performance management

performance measures

• objective
• personnel
• judmental

behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS)- rating format that includes behavioral anchors describing what a work has done, or might be expected to do, in particular duty area

behavioral observation scales (BOS)- asks the rater to consider how frequently an employee has been seen to act in a particular way

rating errors- inaccuracies in ratings that may be actual errors or intentional or systematic distortions

• central tendency error
• leniency error
• severity error
• halo error

training

• administrative training
• psychometric training
• frame-of-reference (FOR) training

Reaction

Performance is so important to our jobs. The question is: "how do we measure it?" The measurement process of performance has ins and outs that have to be considered in order to provide an accurate and unbiased report. We learned that often times the evaluations are not accurate or free of bias and somehow related to organization politics or money woes. These factors alone drive the evaluations to be inflated or deflated and can cause a misunderstanding by the employee receiving the evaluation.

Analysis

I've only had one job where I've been officially given a performance review. This was the job I had in high school where I conducted telephone surveys for hospitals. I had one review before I graduated from high school and quit my job. The evaluation was a surprise. When they brought me in, I was told my previous supervisor (who left suddenly, very dramatic!) was supposed to have handled them. They told me it was supposed to actually happen and frequently but they didn't realize she wasn't doing this portion of her job. Anyway, I was told when I was hired I would be periodically monitored throughout my time with this company- they would randomly listen in on my surveys and take notes. I just never knew when I would receive that feedback. The evaluation was very informal and they didn't have much to say. What they did have to say were comments from previous months and were outdated comments. Things that I had already learned from on my own. It was pretty much a joke. The comments I did receive could be classified as:

judgmental performance measures- evaluation made of the effectiveness of an individual's work behavior, most often by supervisors in the context of a yearly performance evaluation

The method of obtaining information to measure my performance could be considered:

electronic performance monitoring- monitoring work processes with electronic devices; can be very cost effective and has the potential for providing detailed and accurate work logs

The surveys I conducted were on a specially developed system so all of the work I did was monitored. I was evaluated (not paid per) on percentage of surveys completed, quality of completion and so forth. All of these things were monitored. They were more heavily monitored after my first supervisor left since the new supervisor was interested in actually doing his job.

Reflection
There are many different methods of monitoring performance and then translating that into an evaluation process. Companies can devote a lot of time and effort into ensuring they have a good system in place to monitor and then provide feedback to their employees. Unfortunately, not all are interested in providing quality feedback to their employees and can be distracted by office politics, monetary concerns, and other personal issues. These things are important to I/O psychologists because they will most likely be advocating for the implementation and upkeep of quality performance evaluation measures.

Assessing Individuals

Topics of the week:

• foundations of assessment
• traditional assessment procedures
• additional assessment methods
• special topics in assessment
• conceptual issues in staffing
• practical issues in staffing
• Gig
• corporate headhunter
• Articles
• The new-boy network: What do job interviews really tell us?
• Initial evaluations in the interview: Relationships with subsequent interviewer evaluations and employment offers

cognitive ability test- allows individuals to demonstrate what they know, perceive, remember, understand, or can work with mentally; includes problem identification, problem-solving tasks, perceptual skills, the development or evaluation of ideas, and remember what one has learned through general experience or specific training

knowledge test- assesses the extent to which individuals understand course or training materials; also administered for licensing and certification purposes

individual assessment- situation in which only one candidate (or a very few) is assessed on many different attributes

• typical individual assessments include ability tests, personality tests, a personal history statement, and interviews
• process of gathering information about a person in order to classify that individual

Reaction

The process of getting to know who a candidate is involves many facets including assessments and interviews. But how reliable are these methods? It's a complex process and there are many issues to take into consideration while in this portion of filling a position.

Analysis

Since I currently have jobs and have a work history, I have gone through different types of interviews. For my internship this semester, I had a variation of a structured interview.

structured interview- consists of very specific questions asked of each candidate; includes tightly crafted scoring schemes with detailed outlines for the interviewer with respect to assigning ratings or scores based on interview performance

I do not know if it was the exact same interview experience for the other individuals interviewing for the internship. I do, however, know they were standard questions that related to my experience and what I could bring to the position.

When I interviewed to be editor for Tower yearbook, I faced a panel interview. Each panel member had different techniques to which questions they asked. During this interview, I was asked questions similar to those found in a situational interview.

situational interview- asks the interviewee to describe in specific and behavioral detail how he or she would respond to a hypothetical situation

These questions were mostly related to how I would handle potential personnel issues that arose.

For my job in the bakery of the summer, I faced a very informal and unstructured interview.

unstructured interview- includes questions that may vary by candidate and that allow the candidate to answer in any form he or she may prefer

 The interview was short and to the point basically double checking my physical abilities and availability schedule.

These different interviewing methods are unique to each position. I personally feel that each position should have a different type of interview because not all jobs are the same.

Reflection
All of the methods that go into assessing an individual are in-depth and complex. There are many ways to screw things up in an interview process where you could end up hiring a person not suited for the job. It just takes some research to help figure out the best method for each company/position/individual.

Performance

This week's topics:

• performance 
• contextual
• task
• adaptive
• expert
• productivity
• motivation
• knowledge 
• declarative
• procedural
• tacit
• job analysis
• properties 
• practices
• Gig
• video game developer
• hockey player
• Article
• personality matters in human performance

performance- actions or behavior relevant to the organization's goals; measured in terms of each individual's proficiency

• contextual performance- activities not typically part of job descriptions but support the organizational, social, and psychological environment in which the job tasks are performed; similar to organizational citizenship behavior
• predicted by personality dimensions, particularly conscientiousness
• task performance- proficiency with which job incumbents perform activities that are formally recognized as a part of their job
• determined by cognitive ability
• adaptive performance- performance component that includes flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances
• expert performance- performance exhibited by those who have been practicing for at least 10 years and have spent an average of four hours per day in deliberate practice

motivation- concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior; choices which individuals make

Reaction

There are a lot of factors that contribute to performance in the workplace. The equation from Campbell's Three Direct Determinants of Job Performance:

declarative knowledge  +  procedural knowledge and skill  x  motivation  =  performance

helps to explain all of the variables that play into this concept. Without one variable, it is not possible to perform well in the workplace. This is so logical yet I had never thought about what goes into performance. The article we read this week added personality traits to the mix.

Analysis
One of the basic methods of job analysis model is:

critical incident technique- approach in which subject matter experts are asked to identify critical aspects of behavior or performance in a particular job that led to success or failure

Applying this to one of my jobs on campus- teaching assistant in media design classes. The critical aspects of this position are an in-depth understanding of design techniques/software and being able to convey that information clearly to students ranging from beginners to intermediate designers. Without being able to have that knowledge and ability to communicate clearly, I would fail at my job....epically fail.

Reflection
There is so much that goes into the performance aspect of a job! Then there is the entire process of job analysis --> identification of KSAOs (knowledge, skills, ability, other characteristics) --> development of assessment devices. These processes require the person developing them to be very knowledgeable about the subject matter and I/O theory.

Individual Differences

This week we discussed:

• individual differences
• mental and physical abilities
• personality and interests
• additional proposed individual difference
• Articles
• Applying Attachment Theory to Explain Individual behavior in organizations
• The role of mindfulness in predicting individual performance
• Gig
• train engineer
• casino surveillance officer

individual differences- dissimilarities between or among two or more people

mental ability- capacity to reason, plan, and solve problems; cognitive abilities


personality- an individual's behavioral and emotional characteristics generally found to be stable over time and in a variety of circumstances; an individual's habitual way of responding

Reaction
Every person is different- thus their abilities, differences and personality vary significantly. These things need to be considered when an individual seeks employment. Why? Taking my personal differences and abilities into consideration, I know I would not make it as a lumberjack. I do not have near the physical abilities to fit that job well. It only makes sense that organizations take these things into consideration when filling positions.

Analysis
Over the summer, I worked in a bakery. One of the girls I worked with was of short like myself. She was one of a handful of bakers. After talking to her, she expressed how much she wanted to get into a different department like catering. I asked her if there were any specific reasons. She told me about how hard it is on her to be at work at 4 a.m. and work until whenever they were done. Sometimes she would start later and work until 7 or 8 p.m. Not only that, she struggled with lifting 50 lb. bags of flour, sugar, etc. multiple times a day. She said that when she got home, all she wanted to do was rest because work was such a physical demand. This is a strong example of her physical abilities not matching up with her job.

physical abilities- bodily powers such as muscular strength, flexibility, and stamina

stamina- physical ability to supply muscles with oxygenated blood through the cardiovascular strength or aerobic strength or endurance

Reflection

There are more things that we covered aside from physical abilities. However, this was one example I could relate to based on my most recent experiences. I think as long as an employer does not cross a line into discrimination, they should require certain physical abilities for specific jobs.